NeuroTransmitters |
NeuroTransmitters and NeuroDevelopment |
| NeuroTransmitters - Neurotransmission and Neuro Transmitters. Neuroactive Peptides |
| Neurotransmitters: dopamine, serotonin, epinephrine, acetylcholine, norepinephrine, glutamate effects. |
| What are Neurotransmitters?
A neurotransmitter is a signaling molecule secreted by a neuron to affect another cell across a synapse. The cell receiving the signal, or target cell, may be another neuron, but could also be a gland or muscle cell. Neurotransmitters serve as developmental signals for neurons, and neuronal and glial differentiation. Neurotransmitters are released from synaptic vesicles into the synaptic cleft where they are able to interact with neurotransmitter receptors on the target cell. The neurotransmitter's effect on the target cell is determined by the receptor it binds to. Many neurotransmitters are synthesized from simple and plentiful precursors such as amino acids, which are readily available and often require a small number of biosynthetic steps for conversion. Neurotransmitters are essential to the function of complex neural systems. The exact number of unique neurotransmitters in humans is unknown, but more than 100 have been identified. Examples of common neurotransmitters includes dopamine, serotonin, glutamate, GABA, acetylcholine, glycine and norepinephrine. Neurotransmitters or Neuro Transmiters. Neuroactive Peptides or Neuropeptides. Required for the communication of the neural system, neurons and dendrites. |
Neurotransmitter actionsThe only direct action of a neurotransmitter is to activate a receptor. Therefore, the effects of a neurotransmitter system depend on the connections of the neurons that use the transmitter, and the chemical properties of the receptors. |
| Glutamate is used at the great majority of fast excitatory synapses in the brain and spinal cord. It is also used at most synapses that are "modifiable", i.e. capable of increasing or decreasing in strength. Modifiable synapses are thought to be the main memory-storage elements in the brain. Excessive glutamate release can overstimulate the brain and lead to excitotoxicity causing cell death resulting in seizures or strokes. Excitotoxicity has been implicated in certain chronic diseases including ischemic stroke, epilepsy, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, Huntington disease, and Parkinson's disease. |
| GABA is used at the great majority of fast inhibitory synapses in virtually every part of the brain. Many sedative/tranquilizing drugs act by enhancing the effects of GABA. Correspondingly, glycine is the inhibitory transmitter in the spinal cord. |
| Acetylcholine was the first neurotransmitter discovered in the peripheral and central nervous systems. It activates skeletal muscles in the somatic nervous system and may either excite or inhibit internal organs in the autonomic system. It is distinguished as the transmitter at the neuromuscular junction connecting motor nerves to muscles. The paralytic arrow-poison curare acts by blocking transmission at these synapses. Acetylcholine also operates in many regions of the brain, but using different types of receptors, including nicotinic and muscarinic receptors. |
| Dopamine has a number of important functions in the brain; this includes regulation of motor behavior, pleasures related to motivation and also emotional arousal. It plays a critical role in the reward system; Parkinson's disease has been linked to low levels of dopamine and schizophrenia has been linked to high levels of dopamine. |
| Serotonin is a monoamine neurotransmitter. Most is produced by and found in the intestine (approximately 90%), and the remainder in central nervous system neurons. It functions to regulate appetite, sleep, memory and learning, temperature, mood, behaviour, muscle contraction, and function of the cardiovascular system and endocrine system. It is speculated to have a role in depression, as some depressed patients are seen to have lower concentrations of metabolites of serotonin in their cerebrospinal fluid and brain tissue. |
| Norepinephrine which is synthesized in the central nervous system and sympathetic nerves, modulates the responses of the autonomic nervous system, the sleep patterns, focus and alertness. It is synthesized from tyrosine. |
| Epinephrine which is also synthesized from tyrosine is released in the adrenal glands and the brainstem. It plays a role in sleep, with one's ability to become and stay alert, and the fight-or-flight response. |
Types of neurotransmittersThere are many different ways to classify neurotransmitters. Dividing them into amino acids, peptides, and monoamines is sufficient for some classification purposes. Major neurotransmitters are: Amino acids: glutamate, aspartate, D-serine, gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA),(nb 1) glycine. Gasotransmitters: nitric oxide (NO), carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen sulfide (H2S). Monoamines: histamine; Catecholamines: dopamine (DA), norepinephrine (noradrenaline, NE), epinephrine (adrenaline); Indolamines: serotonin (5-HT, SER) and melatonin; Trace amines: phenethylamine, N-methylphenethylamine, tyramine, 3-iodothyronamine, octopamine, tryptamine, etc. Peptides: oxytocin, somatostatin, substance P, cocaine and amphetamine regulated transcript, opioid peptides. Purines: adenosine triphosphate (ATP), adenosine. Others: acetylcholine (ACh), anandamide, etc. |
| In addition, over 100 neuroactive peptides have been found, and new ones are discovered regularly. Many of these are co-released along with a small-molecule transmitter. Nevertheless, in some cases, a peptide is the primary transmitter at a synapse. Beta-Endorphin is a relatively well-known example of a peptide neurotransmitter because it engages in highly specific interactions with opioid receptors in the central nervous system. |
| Single ions (such as synaptically released zinc) are also considered neurotransmitters by some, as well as some gaseous molecules such as nitric oxide (NO), carbon monoxide (CO), and hydrogen sulfide (H2S). The gases are produced in the neural cytoplasm and are immediately diffused through the cell membrane into the extracellular fluid and into nearby cells to stimulate production of second messengers. Soluble gas neurotransmitters are difficult to study, as they act rapidly and are immediately broken down, existing for only a few seconds. |
| The most prevalent transmitter is glutamate, which is excitatory at well over 90% of the synapses in the human brain. The next most prevalent is gamma-Aminobutyric Acid, or GABA, which is inhibitory at more than 90% of the synapses that do not use glutamate. Although other transmitters are used in fewer synapses, they may be very important functionally: the great majority of psychoactive drugs exert their effects by altering the actions of some neurotransmitter systems, often acting through transmitters other than glutamate or GABA. Addictive drugs such as cocaine and amphetamines exert their effects primarily on the dopamine system. The addictive opiate drugs exert their effects primarily as functional analogs of opioid peptides, which, in turn, regulate dopamine levels. |
| Neurotransmitters, neurotranssmision books, articles and references. |
| Neurotransmitters and the brain functions. How do nerve cells communicate? Know about Neurons, dendrites, axons, neurotransmission and synapses. |
| List of known neurotransmitters in medical biochemistry. Neurotransmitters: Synthesis, Definitions, Chemistry, Science, Biology, Receptors, Projections. |
| Brain neurotransmitters and neuropeptides effects in human sleep. |
| Neurotransmitters and neuron synapses in the neural system and nerves. |
| Nutrition, Diet nutrients and the Brain. Neurotransmitters and glutamate effects. Best foods for the brain. |
| Nutrition, health and neurodevelopment facts. Nutriceuticals for the Millenium. |
| Biochemistry of Neurotransmitters. DNA Structure. Neurotransmitter Systems. NMDA Receptors. Neurotransmission. Medical Biochemistry. |
| Neuro Transmitters and Drugs. Side effects of psychotropic drugs over Serotonin. Drug Discovery in Psychiatry and Neurotransmitters. BioMed Courses Pharmacology. |
| What Alcohol Does in the Brain. Articles. Pharmacology and Biomed Courses - Alcohol, the Brain, and Behavior |
| Neural development is regulated by classical neurotransmitters: dopamine D2 receptor stimulation enhances neurite outgrowth. Biological Psychiatry, Todd, R. (1992). |
| Blueberries may restore some memory, coordination and balance lost with age. Eat fruits, nuts and blueberries for your health. Change your diet and menu for optimizing nourishment for the brain. Horticulture Tips. |
| Dietary essential fatty acids and brain function: a developmental perspective on mechanisms. |
| ADDers Are More Likely to Have Fatty Acid Deficiencies. Dementia or Mental Impairment. |
| Further Advances in the Synthesis of Endocannabinoid Related Ligands - Effective use of psychiatric medications |
| Serotonin and brain development: Role in human developmental diseases. Brain Research Bulletin, Whitaker-Azmitia, P. (2001). |
| The Serotonin Synapse. Allosteric Enzymes. Aminoacid derivatives. Neurotransmitter hyperphysic. Adrenergic Receptor Antagonists. |
NeurotransmittersList of neurotransmitters, peptides, and gaseous signaling molecules List of Neurotransmitters by Category, Name, Abbreviation, Metabotropic, Ionotropic Small: Amino acids (Arg); Arginine; Arg, R; α2-Adrenergic receptors, imidazoline receptors; NMDA receptors Small: Amino acids; Aspartate; Asp, D; - ; NMDA receptors Small: Amino acids; Glutamate; Glu, E; Metabotropic glutamate receptors; NMDA receptors, kainate receptors, AMPARs Small: Amino acids; Gamma-aminobutyric acid; GABA; GABAB receptors; GABAA receptors, GABAA-ρ receptors Small: Amino acids; Glycine; Gly, G; - ; NMDA receptors, glycine receptors Small: Amino acids; D-serine; Ser, S; - ; NMDA receptors Small: Acetylcholine; Acetylcholine; ACh; Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors; Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors Small: Monoamine (Phe/Tyr); Dopamine; DA; Dopamine receptors, trace amine-associated receptor 1 Small: Monoamine (Phe/Tyr); Norepinephrine (noradrenaline); NE, NAd; Adrenergic receptors; - Small: Monoamine (Phe/Tyr); Epinephrine (adrenaline); Epi, Ad; Adrenergic receptors; - Small: Monoamine (Trp); Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine); 5-HT; Serotonin receptors (all except 5-HT3); 5-HT3 Small: Monoamine (His); Histamine; H; Histamine receptors; - Small: Trace amine (Phe); Phenethylamine; PEA; Human trace amine-associated receptors: hTAAR1, hTAAR2; - Small: Trace amine (Phe); N-methylphenethylamine; NMPEA; hTAAR1; - Small: Trace amine (Phe/Tyr); Tyramine; TYR; hTAAR1, hTAAR2; - Small: Trace amine (Phe/Tyr); octopamine; Oct; hTAAR1; - Small: Trace amine (Phe/Tyr); Synephrine; Syn; hTAAR1; - Small: Trace amine (Trp); Tryptamine;; hTAAR1, various serotonin receptors; - Small: Trace amine (Trp); N-methyltryptamine; NMT; hTAAR1, various serotonin receptors; - Lipid; Anandamide; AEA; Cannabinoid receptors; - Lipid; 2-Arachidonoylglycerol; 2-AG; Cannabinoid receptors; - Lipid; 2-Arachidonyl glyceryl ether; 2-AGE; Cannabinoid receptors; - Lipid; N-Arachidonoyl dopamine; NADA; Cannabinoid receptors; TRPV1 Lipid; Virodhamine;; Cannabinoid receptors; - Small: Purine; Adenosine; Ado; Adenosine receptors; - Small: Purine; Adenosine triphosphate; ATP; P2Y receptors; P2X receptors Small: Purine; Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide; β-NAD; P2Y receptors; P2X receptors |
NeuropeptidesList of Neuropeptides by Category; Name; Abbreviation; Metabotropic; Ionotropic Bombesin-like peptides; Bombesin;; BBR1-2-3; - Bombesin-like peptide; Gastrin releasing peptide; GRP; - ; - Bombesin-like peptide; Neuromedin B; NMB; Neuromedin B receptor; - Bradykinins; Bradykinin;; B1, B2; - Calcitonin/CGRP family; Calcitonin;; Calcitonin receptor; - Calcitonin/CGRP family; Calcitonin gene-related peptide; CGRP; CALCRL; - Corticotropin-releasing factors; Corticotropin-releasing hormone; CRH; CRHR1; - Corticotropin-releasing factors; Urocortin;; CRHR1; - Galanins; Galanin;; GALR1, GALR2, GALR3; - Galanins; Galanin-like peptide;; GALR1, GALR2, GALR3; - Gastrins; Gastrin;; Cholecystokinin B receptor; - Gastrins; Cholecystokinin; CCK; Cholecystokinin receptors; - Granins; Chromogranin A; ChgA; - ; - Melanocortins; Adrenocorticotropic hormone; ACTH; ACTH receptor; - Melanocortins; Proopiomelanocortin; POMC; Melanocortin 4 receptor; - Melanocortins; Melanocyte-stimulating hormones; MSH; Melanocortin receptors; - Neurohypophyseals; Vasopressin; AVP; Vasopressin receptors; - Neurohypophyseals; Oxytocin; OT; Oxytocin receptor; - Neurohypophyseals; Neurophysin I;; - ; - Neurohypophyseals; Neurophysin II;; - ; - Neurohypophyseals; Copeptin;; - ; - Neuromedins; Neuromedin U; NmU; NmUR1, NmUR2; - Neuropeptide B/W; Neuropeptide B; NPB; NPBW1, NPBW2; - Neuropeptide B/W; Neuropeptide S; NPS; Neuropeptide S receptors; - Neuropeptide Y; Neuropeptide Y; NY; Neuropeptide Y receptors; - Neuropeptide Y; Pancreatic polypeptide; PP; - ; - Neuropeptide Y; Peptide YY; PYY; - ; - Opioids; Enkephalins;; δ-Opioid receptor; - Opioids; Dynorphins;; κ-Opioid receptor; - Opioids; Neoendorphins;; κ-Opioid receptor; - Opioids; Endorphins;; μ-Opioid receptors; - Opioids; Endomorphins;; μ-Opioid receptors; - Opioids; Morphine;; μ-Opioid receptors; - Opioids; Nociceptin/orphanin FQ; N/OFQ; Nociceptin receptors; - Orexins; Orexin A; OX-A; Orexin receptors; - Orexins; Orexin B; OX-B; Orexin receptors; - Parathyroid hormone family; Parathyroid hormone-related protein; PTHrP; - ; - RFamides; Kisspeptin; KiSS; GPR54; - RFamides; Neuropeptide FF; NPFF; NPFF1, NPFF2; - RFamides; Prolactin-releasing peptide; PrRP; PrRPR; - RFamides; Pyroglutamylated RFamide peptide; QRFP; GPR103; - Secretins; Secretin;; Secretin receptor; - Secretins; Motilin;; Motilin receptor; - Secretins; Glucagon;; Glucagon receptor; - Secretins; Glucagon-like peptide-1; GLP-1; Glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor; - Secretins; Glucagon-like peptide-2; GLP-2; Glucagon-like peptide 2 receptor; - Secretins; Vasoactive intestinal peptide; VIP; Vasoactive intestinal peptide receptors; - Secretins; Growth hormone–releasing hormone; GHRH; Growth hormone–releasing hormone receptor; - Secretins; Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide; PACAP; ADCYAP1R1; - Somatostatins; Somatostatin;; Somatostatin receptors; - Tachykinins; Neurokinin A;; - ; - Tachykinins; Neurokinin B;; - ; - Tachykinins; Substance P;; - ; - Tachykinins; Neuropeptide K;; - ; - Other; Agouti-related peptide; AgRP; Melanocortin receptor - Other; N-Acetylaspartylglutamate; NAAG; Metabotropic glutamate receptor 3 (mGluR3); - Other; Cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript; CART; Unknown Gi/Go-coupled receptor Other; Gonadotropin-releasing hormone; GnRH; GnRHR; - Other; Thyrotropin-releasing hormone; TRH; TRHR; - Other; Melanin-concentrating hormone; MCH; MCHR 1,2; - |
GasotransmittersList of Gasotransmitters by Category; Name; Abbreviation; Metabotropic; Ionotropic Gaseous signaling molecule; Nitric oxide; NO; Soluble guanylyl cyclase; - Gaseous signaling molecule; Carbon monoxide; CO; - ; Heme bound to potassium channels Gaseous signaling molecule; Hydrogen sulfide; H2S; - ; - |
| Neuro Protectors |