Neuro
- Health, NeuroDevelopment and Neural Science
Neuro Development -
NeuroDevelopment study neuroscience and biology basics to describes the mechanisms
by which nervous systems grows and connect from embryonic development and throughout life.
NeuroDevelopment al processes starts from stem cell that grows to axons and neurons
which are finally thought to underlie learning and memory.
NeuroDevelopment Training - NeuroDevelopment training enhances brain performance just like exercising keeps the body in healthy condition.
NeuroDevelopment allows us the ability to maximize and use our intellectual, physical, and emotional strengths simultaneously.
A NeuroDevelopment programs focus on enhancing mental fitness which promotes longevity, health, and peak performance.
Neuro Development
The study of NeuroDevelopment draws on both neuroscience and developmental biology.
The neural development describes the cellular and molecular mechanisms
by which complex nervous systems emerge during embryonic development and throughout life.
Some landmarks of embryonic neural development include the birth and differentiation of neurons from stem cell precursors, the migration of immature neurons from their birthplaces in the embryo to their final positions, outgrowth of axons from neurons and guidance of the motile growth cone through the embryo towards postsynaptic partners, the generation of synapses between these axons and their postsynaptic partners, and finally the lifelong changes in synapses which are thought to underlie learning and memory.
Typically, these NeuroDevelopment al processes can be broadly divided into two classes: activity-independent mechanisms and activity-dependent mechanisms. Activity-independent mechanisms are generally believed to occur as hardwired processes determined by genetic programs played out within individual neurons. These include differentiation, migration and axon guidance to their initial target areas. These processes are thought of as being independent of neural activity and sensory experience. Once axons reach their target areas, activity-dependent mechanisms come into play. Neural activity and sensory experience will mediate formation of new synapses, as well as synaptic plasticity, which will be responsible for refinement of the nascent neural circuits.
Developmental neuroscience uses a variety of animal models including the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster , the zebrafish Danio rerio, Xenopus laevis tadpoles and the worm Caenorhabditis elegans, among others.
First stage: Neurulation
Neurulation -
See embryogenesis for understanding the animal development up to this stage.
Neurulation follows gastrulation in all vertebrates. During gastrulation cells migrate to the interior of embryo, forming three germ layers (endoderm, mesoderm and ectoderm) from which all tissues and organs will arise. In a simplified way, it can be said that the ectoderm gives rise to skin and nervous system, the endoderm to the guts and the mesoderm to the rest of the organs.
After gastrulation the notochord -a flexible, rod-shaped body that runs along the antero-posterior axis -has been formed (derived from mesoderm). the notochord sends signals to the overlying ectoderm, inducing it to become neuroectoderm, composed of neuronal precursor (or stem) cells. This is evidenced by a thickening of the ectoderm above the notochord, the neural plate. the neural plate will form the neural tube which then twists, turns and kinks to form the three primary brain vesicles and five secondary brain vesicles. the end result of this process is described in the article on the regions of the brain.
Neuroanatomy -
The human nervous system is divided into the central and peripheral nervous systems. the central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord, and plays a key role in controlling behavior.
The peripheral nervous system is made up of all the neurons in the body outside of the central nervous system, and is further subdivided into the somatic and autonomic nervous systems. the somatic nervous system is made up of afferent neurons that convey sensory information from the sense organs to the brain and spinal cord, and efferent neurons that carry motor instructions to the muscles.
The autonomic nervous system also has two subdivisions. the sympathetic nervous system is a set of nerves that activate what has been called the "fight-or-flight" response that prepares the body for action. the parasympathetic nervous system instead prepares the body to rest and conserve energy.
Fields within neuroscience
There are many areas of study within neuroscience including:
Neurobiology, which aims to study cells of the nervous system and the organization of these cells into functional circuits that process information and mediate behavior.
Molecular and cellular neuroscience, which integrate neurobiology with neurochemistry with the goal of understanding the cellular and chemical mechanisms of normal and abnormal brain function.
Developmental neuroscience, which studies how the ectodermally-derived central nervous system and mesodermally-derived peripheral nervous system develops into adulthood. Developmental neuroscience uses many different animal models, including the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster , zebrafish Danio rerio, Xenopus laevis tadpoles, and the worm Caenorhabditis elegans.
Cognitive neuroscience, which aims to understand the mechanisms that underlie "higher level" brain functions, usually in humans. These include language, learning and memory, attention, and emotion.
Computational and systems neuroscience, which seek to understand how information is processed by the nervous system. the methods of research combine mathematical and computational models with physiological recordings of single cells, neuronal clusters, and entire brain systems.
Behavioral Neuroscience, which assesses the neural underpinnings of a vast array of behaviors, from primate saccadic eye movements to the complex foraging behavior of bees.
Sensory Neuroscience, which attempts to understand how sensory areas of the brain represent information from the outside world.
Neurology, which is the branch of medicine that deals with the nervous system.
Neurobiology of disease: This field, directly aligned with medical research, is interested in understanding diseases associated with the nervous system.
"Neuroscience" refers to all the fields that study the nervous system. In some sense, psychology is a sub-field of neuroscience, although some mind/body theorists argue that the definition goes the other way. One of the largest related fields which shares many features of both psychology and neuroscience is neuropsychopharmacology. Neurobiology is sometimes used interchangeably with neuroscience, but it refers specifically to the study of the biology of the nervous system. Below is a list of related and overlapping fields:
Aphasiology
Behavioral Neuroscience
Computational neuroscience
Evolutionary neuroscience
Neural engineering
Neuroanatomy
Neurobiology
Neurochemistry
Neuroeconomics
Neuroergonomics
Neuroendocrinology
Neuroesthetics
Neuroethics
Neuroethology
Neurogenetics
Neurogenomics
Neuroheuristic
Neuroimaging
Neurolinguistics
Neuromarketing
Neuropharmacology
Neurophenomenology
Neurophilosophy
Neurophysiology
Neuroproteomics
Neuroprosthetics
Neuropsychiatry
Neuropsychology
Neuropsychopharmacology
Neurotheology (also Biotheology)
Psychiatry
Psychopharmacology
Psychobiology (also Biopsychology, also Biological psychology)
NLM NIH Neuroscience - 2nd ed. Dale Purves, George J. Augustine, David Fitzpatrick, Lawrence
C. Katz, Anthony-Samuel LaMantia, James O. McNamara, S. Mark Williams.
Published by Sinauer Associates, Inc., 2001.
NLM NIH Neuroscience - Basic Neurochemistry: Molecular, Cellular, and Medical Aspects
6th ed. by George J. Siegel, Bernard W. Agranoff, R. Wayne Albers,
Stephen K. Fisher, Michael D. Uhler, editors. Published by Lippincott,
Williams and Wilkins, 1999.
Popular works
Andreason, N. C. (2001). Brave New Brain: Conquering Mental Illness in the Age of the Genome. Oxford, Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0195145097 (Hardcover)
ISBN 0195167287 (Paperback)
Damasio, A. R. (1994). Descartes' Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain. New York, Avon Books.
ISBN 0399138943 (Hardcover)
ISBN 0380726475 (Paperback)
Gardner, H. (1976). the Shattered Mind: the Person After Brain Damage. New York, Vintage Books, 1976
ISBN 0394719468
Goldstein, K. (2000). the Organism. New York, Zone Books.
ISBN 0942299965 (Hardcover)
ISBN 0942299973 (Paperback)
Luria, A. R. (1997). the Man with a Shattered World: the History of a Brain Wound. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press.
ISBN 0224007920 (Hardcover)
ISBN 0674546253 (Paperback)
Luria, A. R. (1998). the Mind of a Mnemonist: A Little Book About A Vast Memory. New York, Basic Books, Inc.
ISBN 0674576225
Ramachandran, V.S. (1998). Phantoms in the Brain. New York, New York Harper Collins.
ISBN 0688152473 (Paperback)
Sacks, O. (1990). Awakenings. New York, Vintage Books.
Sternberg, E. (2007) Are You a Machine? the Brain, the Mind and What it Means to be Human. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books.
Tufts Neurodevelopment - Blueberries -The role of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in brain: modulation of rat brain gene expression by dietary n-3 fatty acids